Imagine a world where the air is fresh, the roads are quiet, and the only sound is the soft hum of electric vehicles (EVs) gliding effortlessly from one destination to another. This utopian vision is fast becoming a reality, thanks to the rapid adoption of electric cars. But have you ever wondered what makes these eco-friendly marvels tick?
The answer lies in the heart of every EV: the lithium-ion battery. Lithium, a soft, silvery-white alkali metal, is the key to unlocking the power and range of electric vehicles. As the world shifts gears towards a more sustainable future, understanding the role of lithium in EV batteries has become more crucial than ever.
With governments around the world setting ambitious targets to phase out internal combustion engines, the demand for lithium is skyrocketing. However, concerns about the environmental and social impact of lithium mining, as well as the metal’s finite supply, have sparked heated debates. Amidst this backdrop, it’s essential to delve into the intricacies of lithium usage in EV batteries.
In this article, we’ll take you on a journey to explore the fascinating world of lithium-ion batteries. You’ll discover how much lithium is actually in an electric car battery, the factors that influence its usage, and the innovative solutions being developed to reduce lithium dependence. By the end of this article, you’ll have a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between lithium, EV batteries, and the future of sustainable transportation.
So, buckle up and let’s dive into the world of lithium-ion batteries. The road to a greener tomorrow starts here!
Introduction to Lithium in Electric Car Batteries
Electric car batteries are revolutionizing the transportation industry, and lithium-ion batteries are at the forefront of this revolution. As demand for electric vehicles (EVs) continues to grow, understanding the role of lithium in these batteries is crucial. In this section, we will delve into the world of lithium-ion batteries, exploring how much lithium is used in electric car batteries and its significance in the EV ecosystem.
Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Brief Overview
Lithium-ion batteries are the most common type of battery used in electric vehicles. They offer a high energy density, long cycle life, and relatively low self-discharge rate. These characteristics make lithium-ion batteries ideal for EVs, which require a large amount of energy to power the vehicle over long distances.
The Importance of Lithium in Lithium-Ion Batteries
Lithium is a key component of lithium-ion batteries, making up approximately 1-2% of the battery’s total weight. However, its impact on the battery’s performance and overall efficiency cannot be overstated. Lithium’s high energy density and ability to conduct electricity efficiently enable the battery to store and release large amounts of energy.
How Much Lithium Is Used in Electric Car Batteries?
The amount of lithium used in electric car batteries varies depending on the type of battery and the vehicle’s specifications. However, on average, a lithium-ion battery pack used in an EV can contain anywhere from 2 to 20 kilograms of lithium.
Breakdown of Lithium Content in Electric Car Batteries
| Battery Type | Lithium Content (kg) |
| — | — |
| Nissan Leaf | 2-3 kg |
| Tesla Model S | 5-7 kg |
| BMW i3 | 3-5 kg |
| Tesla Model 3 | 6-10 kg |
Note: The lithium content values are approximate and may vary depending on the specific battery configuration and vehicle model.
Where Does the Lithium Come From?
Lithium is a relatively rare element, making up only 0.006 parts per million (ppm) of the Earth’s crust. Most lithium is extracted from hard rock deposits, such as spodumene and petalite, or from brine pools in salt lakes and salt flats.
Lithium Extraction Methods
There are two primary methods of lithium extraction:
1. Hard Rock Mining: Lithium is extracted from hard rock deposits through a process of crushing, grinding, and flotation.
2. Brine Extraction: Lithium is extracted from brine pools through a process of evaporation and crystallization.
In the next section, we will explore the challenges associated with lithium extraction and production, as well as the impact of the growing demand for lithium on the environment and the economy.
Challenges and Opportunities in Lithium Extraction and Production
The increasing demand for lithium to meet the growing demand for electric vehicles has created a number of challenges and opportunities in the lithium extraction and production industry.
Challenges in Lithium Extraction and Production
1. Environmental Impact: Lithium mining can have a significant environmental impact, including water pollution, soil contamination, and habitat destruction.
2. Energy Consumption: Lithium extraction and production require significant amounts of energy, which can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Labor Issues: Lithium mining can be a labor-intensive process, and workers often face challenging working conditions.
Opportunities in Lithium Extraction and Production
1. Recycling: Recycling lithium-ion batteries can help reduce the demand for primary lithium and minimize waste.
2. Sustainable Mining Practices: Implementing sustainable mining practices, such as reducing water consumption and minimizing waste, can help mitigate the environmental impact of lithium mining.
3. Investment in Alternative Technologies: Investing in alternative technologies, such as solid-state batteries or other battery chemistries, can help reduce the demand for lithium and improve overall energy efficiency.
In the next section, we will explore the role of recycling in the lithium-ion battery industry and its potential to reduce the demand for primary lithium.
The Role of Recycling in the Lithium-Ion Battery Industry
Recycling lithium-ion batteries is a critical component of a sustainable battery industry. As the demand for EVs continues to grow, the amount of lithium-ion batteries that need to be recycled is increasing exponentially.
Benefits of Recycling Lithium-Ion Batteries
1. Reduced Demand for Primary Lithium: Recycling lithium-ion batteries can help reduce the demand for primary lithium, which can help mitigate the environmental impact of lithium mining.
2. Energy Savings: Recycling lithium-ion batteries can help reduce the energy required to produce new batteries.
3. Job Creation: Recycling lithium-ion batteries can create new job opportunities in the industry.
Challenges in Recycling Lithium-Ion Batteries
1. Economic Viability: Recycling lithium-ion batteries can be an expensive process, making it challenging to make it economically viable.
2. Technological Challenges: Recycling lithium-ion batteries requires specialized technology and expertise.
3. Regulatory Framework: Establishing a regulatory framework for lithium-ion battery recycling is critical to ensure that the process is safe and environmentally friendly.
In the next section, we will explore the potential of solid-state batteries to reduce the demand for lithium and improve overall energy efficiency. (See Also: Can You Jump a Car with a Battery? – Safe Jumping Methods)
solid-state Batteries: A Potential Game-Changer for Lithium Demand
Solid-state batteries are a type of battery that replaces the liquid electrolyte with a solid material, such as a ceramic or glass electrolyte. This design change has the potential to significantly reduce the demand for lithium and improve overall energy efficiency.
Benefits of Solid-State Batteries
1. Reduced Lithium Demand: Solid-state batteries can reduce the demand for lithium by up to 50%.
2. Improved Energy Efficiency: Solid-state batteries can improve energy efficiency by up to 30%.
3. Increased Safety: Solid-state batteries are less prone to thermal runaway and can be designed to be safer than traditional lithium-ion batteries.
Challenges in Developing Solid-State Batteries
1. Technical Challenges: Developing solid-state batteries requires significant technical expertise and investment.
2. Scalability: Scaling up solid-state battery production can be challenging.
3. Cost: Solid-state batteries are currently more expensive than traditional lithium-ion batteries.
In the next section, we will explore the potential of alternative battery chemistries to reduce the demand for lithium and improve overall energy efficiency.
Alternative Battery Chemistries: A Potential Solution to Lithium Demand
Alternative battery chemistries, such as sodium-ion batteries or zinc-air batteries, have the potential to reduce the demand for lithium and improve overall energy efficiency.
Benefits of Alternative Battery Chemistries
1. Reduced Lithium Demand: Alternative battery chemistries can reduce the demand for lithium by up to 50%.
2. Improved Energy Efficiency: Alternative battery chemistries
How Much Lithium Is in a Electric Car Battery?
Lithium-Ion Batteries and Electric Vehicles
Lithium-ion batteries have revolutionized the electric vehicle (EV) industry, providing a reliable and efficient means of powering electric cars. These batteries are a crucial component of EVs, enabling them to travel long distances and provide a smooth driving experience. But have you ever wondered how much lithium is actually used in these batteries?
Lithium is a key component of lithium-ion batteries, making up about 10-20% of the battery’s total weight. However, the exact amount of lithium used can vary depending on the type of battery, its size, and its application. In this section, we’ll delve into the world of lithium-ion batteries and explore how much lithium is typically used in electric car batteries.
Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistry
Lithium-ion batteries work by moving lithium ions between two electrodes, a cathode and anode, through an electrolyte. The cathode is typically made of lithium cobalt oxide, while the anode is made of graphite. The electrolyte is a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent. When the battery is charged, lithium ions move from the cathode to the anode, and when it’s discharged, they move back to the cathode.
This process is repeated many times, allowing the battery to store and release energy. The lithium ions are responsible for the battery’s ability to store energy, and the amount of lithium used can vary depending on the battery’s design and application.
Lithium Content in Electric Car Batteries
The amount of lithium used in electric car batteries can vary significantly depending on the type of battery and its size. For example, a small electric bike battery might contain around 1-2 grams of lithium, while a large electric car battery could contain up to 100 grams or more.
A typical electric car battery contains around 50-100 kilograms (110-220 pounds) of lithium, with the exact amount depending on the manufacturer and model. For example:
- Nissan Leaf battery: around 70 kg (154 lbs) of lithium
- Tesla Model S battery: around 100 kg (220 lbs) of lithium
- BMW i3 battery: around 40 kg (88 lbs) of lithium
It’s worth noting that not all of the lithium in the battery is actually used for energy storage. Some lithium is used for other components, such as the battery management system (BMS) and the electrolyte.
Challenges and Benefits of Lithium Use
Lithium is a key component of electric car batteries, but it also poses some challenges. For example:
- Lithium is a relatively rare element, making it difficult to extract and process
- Lithium mining can have environmental and social impacts, particularly in areas where the mineral is extracted
- Lithium batteries can be expensive and difficult to recycle
However, lithium-ion batteries also have many benefits, including:
- High energy density, allowing for long driving ranges
- Fast charging capabilities, making it possible to quickly recharge the battery
- Long lifespan, with some batteries lasting up to 10 years or more
Practical Applications and Actionable Tips
If you’re considering purchasing an electric car, it’s important to understand the role of lithium in the battery and the potential challenges and benefits. Here are a few practical tips to keep in mind:
1. Research the battery technology used in the electric car you’re interested in, and look for manufacturers that prioritize sustainability and responsible lithium sourcing.
2. Consider the total cost of ownership, including the cost of the battery and any potential recycling costs.
3. Look for electric cars with advanced battery management systems, which can help to optimize the battery’s performance and extend its lifespan.
4. Consider purchasing an electric car with a modular battery design, which can make it easier to replace or upgrade the battery in the future.
Conclusion
Lithium is a crucial component of electric car batteries, providing the energy storage needed for electric vehicles to operate. While the exact amount of lithium used can vary depending on the type of battery and its application, most electric car batteries contain around 50-100 kilograms of lithium. As the electric vehicle industry continues to grow, it’s important to prioritize responsible lithium sourcing and sustainability in battery design and production. By understanding the role of lithium in electric car batteries, you can make informed decisions when purchasing an electric vehicle and contribute to a more sustainable future for transportation.
How Much Lithium Is in a Electric Car Battery?
The Role of Lithium in Electric Car Batteries
Lithium is a key component in the production of electric car batteries. It is used to create the cathode, which is one of the two main electrodes in a lithium-ion battery. The cathode is responsible for storing energy and releasing it as needed. Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and relatively low self-discharge rate. (See Also: Where Can I Sell Car Batteries for Cash? – Top Cash Offers)
The demand for lithium is increasing rapidly as the world shifts towards electric vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries account for a significant portion of the global lithium market. In 2020, lithium-ion batteries accounted for around 70% of the global lithium market share.
How Much Lithium Is Used in an Electric Car Battery?
Lithium Content in Electric Car Batteries: A Breakdown
The amount of lithium used in an electric car battery can vary depending on the type of battery and the manufacturer. However, on average, a lithium-ion battery used in an electric vehicle can contain between 6-12 kilograms (13-26 pounds) of lithium.
A study by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimated that a lithium-ion battery used in an electric vehicle can contain around 8-10 kilograms (18-22 pounds) of lithium. Another study by the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that a lithium-ion battery used in an electric vehicle can contain around 6-8 kilograms (13-18 pounds) of lithium.
It’s worth noting that the amount of lithium used in an electric car battery is relatively small compared to the overall weight of the vehicle. For example, a Tesla Model 3 battery pack weighs around 550 kilograms (1,212 pounds), and the lithium content is only around 8-10 kilograms (18-22 pounds) of that.
Types of Lithium Used in Electric Car Batteries
Lithium Types and Their Impact on Battery Performance
There are several types of lithium used in electric car batteries, each with its own unique properties and characteristics. The most common types of lithium used in electric car batteries are:
- Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2): This is one of the most commonly used lithium compounds in electric car batteries. It has a high energy density and is relatively inexpensive to produce.
- Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2): This type of lithium compound is used in some electric car batteries due to its high energy density and relatively long cycle life.
- Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4): This type of lithium compound is used in some electric car batteries due to its relatively low cost and long cycle life.
The type of lithium used in an electric car battery can impact its performance and lifespan. For example, lithium cobalt oxide batteries tend to have a higher energy density than lithium iron phosphate batteries, but they also tend to have a shorter lifespan.
Lithium Recycling: The Future of Lithium Supply
Lithium Recycling: A Growing Industry
Lithium recycling is a growing industry that is expected to play a major role in meeting the increasing demand for lithium. Lithium recycling involves the collection and processing of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries, which can then be reused in the production of new lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium recycling has several benefits, including:
- Reducing the environmental impact of lithium mining
- Conserving natural resources
- Reducing the cost of lithium production
Several companies are already working on lithium recycling technologies, including Redwood Materials, Li-Cycle, and Retriev Technologies. These companies are developing closed-loop recycling systems that can recover up to 95% of the lithium from spent batteries.
Challenges and Opportunities in Lithium Recycling
While lithium recycling is a promising industry, there are still several challenges and opportunities to be addressed. Some of the key challenges include:
- Developing cost-effective and efficient recycling technologies
- Improving the quality of recycled lithium
- Scaling up recycling operations to meet demand
However, there are also several opportunities in lithium recycling, including:
- Reducing the environmental impact of lithium mining
- Conserving natural resources
- Reducing the cost of lithium production
Real-World Examples of Lithium Recycling
There are several real-world examples of lithium recycling in action. For example:
- Redwood Materials, a company based in Nevada, is working with several automakers to recycle lithium-ion batteries from spent electric vehicles.
- Li-Cycle, a company based in Ontario, is developing a closed-loop recycling system that can recover up to 95% of the lithium from spent batteries.
These examples demonstrate the potential of lithium recycling to meet the increasing demand for lithium and reduce the environmental impact of lithium mining.
Understanding Lithium in Electric Car Batteries
As the world shifts towards a more sustainable future, electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming increasingly popular. One of the key components that make EVs possible is the battery, which relies heavily on lithium. But have you ever wondered how much lithium is actually in an electric car battery?
Lithium’s Role in Electric Car Batteries
Lithium is a crucial element in electric car batteries, serving as the primary component in lithium-ion batteries. These batteries are designed to store electrical energy, which is then used to power the vehicle. Lithium’s unique properties make it an ideal choice for EV batteries:
- High energy density: Lithium has a high energy density, allowing it to store a lot of energy relative to its weight.
- Long cycle life: Lithium-ion batteries can be charged and discharged many times without losing their capacity.
- Low self-discharge: Lithium-ion batteries lose their charge relatively slowly, making them suitable for EVs that may not be used daily.
How Much Lithium is in an Electric Car Battery?
The amount of lithium in an electric car battery varies depending on the type and size of the battery. On average, a typical EV battery contains around 5-10 kilograms (11-22 pounds) of lithium. To put this into perspective:
| Electric Vehicle | Lithium Content (kg) |
|---|---|
| Nissan Leaf | 4.5 kg (9.9 lbs) |
| Tesla Model S | 7.5 kg (16.5 lbs) |
| Chevrolet Bolt | 6.3 kg (13.9 lbs) |
It’s worth noting that these figures are approximate and can vary depending on the specific battery chemistry and design. Additionally, as battery technology continues to evolve, the amount of lithium required may decrease.
Challenges and Opportunities in Lithium Supply
The growing demand for lithium-ion batteries has led to concerns about the availability of lithium. Some of the challenges facing the lithium supply chain include:
- Geopolitical risks: Lithium is primarily mined in countries like Chile, Argentina, and Australia, which can be subject to political and economic instability.
- Environmental concerns: Lithium mining can have environmental impacts, such as water pollution and land degradation.
- Supply chain disruptions: The lithium supply chain is complex and vulnerable to disruptions, which can impact battery production.
Despite these challenges, there are opportunities for innovation and improvement in the lithium supply chain. For example: (See Also: How to Test for Drain on Car Battery? – Accurate Diagnosis Made Easy)
- Recycling: Closed-loop recycling of lithium-ion batteries can help reduce waste and recover valuable materials like lithium.
- Sustainable mining: Implementing sustainable mining practices can minimize environmental impacts and ensure a more responsible supply of lithium.
- Alternative battery chemistries: Researchers are exploring alternative battery chemistries that use less or no lithium, which could reduce dependence on this critical element.
Practical Applications and Actionable Tips
As the demand for electric vehicles continues to grow, it’s essential to understand the role of lithium in EV batteries. Here are some practical applications and actionable tips:
- Support sustainable mining practices: When purchasing an EV, look for manufacturers that prioritize sustainable mining practices and responsible sourcing of lithium.
- Recycle your battery: When your EV battery reaches the end of its life, ensure it’s recycled responsibly to recover valuable materials like lithium.
- Explore alternative battery chemistries: Stay informed about advancements in alternative battery chemistries that could reduce dependence on lithium.
By understanding the role of lithium in electric car batteries and the challenges facing the supply chain, we can work towards a more sustainable future for EVs.
Key Takeaways
The amount of lithium in an electric car battery varies depending on the type and capacity of the battery, but on average, it can range from 8-16 kilograms per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of battery capacity.
This translates to around 100-200 kilograms of lithium for a typical electric vehicle battery pack, which is roughly the same weight as a large suitcase.
As the demand for electric vehicles continues to grow, the need for sustainable and responsible lithium sourcing becomes increasingly important to ensure a stable supply chain and minimize the environmental impact.
- Lithium is a key component of electric car batteries, with an average of 8-16 kilograms per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of battery capacity.
- The total weight of lithium in a typical electric vehicle battery pack is around 100-200 kilograms, similar to a large suitcase.
- The lithium content in electric car batteries is significantly higher than in other applications, such as consumer electronics.
- Recycling lithium-ion batteries can help recover up to 95% of the battery’s materials, including lithium.
- Sustainable and responsible lithium sourcing is crucial to ensure a stable supply chain and minimize environmental impact.
- Advancements in battery technology may reduce the amount of lithium required per unit of energy storage.
- Lithium extraction methods are being improved to reduce water usage and environmental damage.
- Investing in lithium recycling and closed-loop manufacturing can help reduce waste and conserve resources.
- The demand for lithium is expected to continue growing, driven by the increasing adoption of electric vehicles and renewable energy.
As the electric vehicle market continues to expand, it’s essential to prioritize sustainable lithium sourcing and recycling practices to ensure a reliable and environmentally friendly supply chain.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is lithium and why is it used in electric car batteries?
Lithium is a lightweight, highly reactive metal that is used in electric vehicle (EV) batteries due to its unique properties. Lithium-ion batteries, which are the most common type of battery used in EVs, rely on lithium to store and release electrical energy. The use of lithium in EV batteries provides several benefits, including high energy density, long cycle life, and low self-discharge rates. Additionally, lithium is abundant and relatively inexpensive, making it an attractive material for EV battery production.
How much lithium is in a typical electric car battery?
The amount of lithium in an electric car battery can vary depending on the type and size of the battery, as well as the specific chemistry used. However, on average, a typical electric car battery contains around 10-15 kilograms (22-33 pounds) of lithium. This is equivalent to about 60-90 lithium-ion battery cells, each containing around 0.1-0.2 kilograms (0.22-0.44 pounds) of lithium.
Why is lithium so important for electric vehicles?
Lithium is a critical component of electric vehicle batteries because it enables the high energy density and long cycle life required for EVs to achieve their desired range and performance. Without lithium, EV batteries would be heavier, less efficient, and more expensive, making them less viable as a sustainable transportation option. The widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries has been instrumental in driving the growth of the EV market and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation.
How do I recycle my electric car battery and recover the lithium?
Recycling electric car batteries is a growing industry, and several companies are developing closed-loop recycling processes to recover valuable materials like lithium. To recycle your electric car battery, you can contact the manufacturer or a local recycling facility that specializes in EV battery recycling. They will guide you through the process, which typically involves collecting the battery, disassembling it, and separating the lithium and other materials for reuse or resale.
What are the environmental impacts of lithium mining for electric car batteries?
Lithium mining can have environmental impacts, including water pollution, land degradation, and energy consumption. However, the industry is taking steps to mitigate these effects, such as implementing sustainable mining practices, using renewable energy, and reducing water usage. Additionally, the benefits of lithium-ion batteries in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation far outweigh the environmental costs of mining. As the demand for lithium continues to grow, it is essential to develop and implement more sustainable and responsible mining practices.
Can I replace the lithium-ion battery in my electric car with a different type of battery?
Currently, lithium-ion batteries are the most widely used and cost-effective option for electric vehicles. While other battery technologies, such as solid-state batteries or sodium-ion batteries, are being developed, they are not yet widely available or cost-competitive with lithium-ion batteries. Replacing a lithium-ion battery with a different type of battery may not be possible or practical, as it would require significant modifications to the vehicle’s electrical system and may void the manufacturer’s warranty.
How much does it cost to replace the lithium-ion battery in my electric car?
The cost of replacing a lithium-ion battery in an electric car can vary widely depending on the make and model of the vehicle, the age and condition of the battery, and the location. On average, the cost of a replacement battery can range from $5,000 to $15,000 or more. However, many manufacturers offer warranties on their batteries, which can cover replacement costs for a certain number of years or miles. It is essential to consult with the manufacturer or a certified dealer for specific information on battery replacement costs and warranty coverage.
Which is better, a lithium-ion battery or a lead-acid battery for my electric car?
Lithium-ion batteries are significantly better suited for electric vehicles than lead-acid batteries due to their higher energy density, longer cycle life, and lower self-discharge rates. Lithium-ion batteries provide the necessary range and performance for EVs, while lead-acid batteries are better suited for low-voltage applications like starting engines or powering accessories. While lead-acid batteries are less expensive, they are not a viable alternative for EVs due to their limited capabilities and heavier weight.
What are the future prospects for lithium demand and supply in the electric vehicle market?
The demand for lithium is expected to continue growing as the electric vehicle market expands. To meet this demand, new lithium mining projects are being developed, and recycling technologies are being improved to recover lithium from spent EV batteries. While there are concerns about the sustainability of lithium mining, the industry is working to reduce its environmental footprint and improve recycling rates. As the market continues to evolve, it is likely that new battery chemistries and technologies will emerge, potentially reducing the demand for lithium or improving its efficiency in EV batteries.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the amount of lithium in an electric car battery is a crucial aspect of the vehicle’s overall performance and sustainability. By understanding the quantity of lithium used in electric vehicle batteries, we can better appreciate the significance of responsible mining and recycling practices. The data revealed in this article highlights the importance of exploring alternative battery chemistries and developing more efficient extraction methods to ensure a steady supply of lithium for the growing electric vehicle market.
The benefits of using lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles are undeniable, with improved range, performance, and reduced emissions making them an attractive option for environmentally conscious consumers. Moreover, the widespread adoption of electric vehicles has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change.
As the demand for electric vehicles continues to rise, it is essential that we prioritize sustainable battery production and responsible resource management. This can be achieved through the implementation of closed-loop recycling processes, which recover and reuse lithium and other critical materials from spent batteries. By taking a proactive approach to sustainable battery development, we can ensure a cleaner, more environmentally friendly future for generations to come.
As you continue to explore the world of electric vehicles, remember that every decision you make has the potential to shape the future of our planet. By choosing to drive an electric vehicle, you are not only reducing your carbon footprint but also supporting the development of more sustainable and responsible battery technologies. So, join the movement towards a cleaner, greener tomorrow, and discover the power of electric driving.